424 Phil. 411
CARPIO, J.:
“4. Furthermore, like all financial institutions under Central Bank supervision, DBP will now be required to have a private external audit, and its Board of Directors will now be opened to adequate private sector representation. It is hoped that with these commitments, DBP can avoid the difficulties of the past and can function as a competitive and viable financial institution within the Philippine financial system.”[5] (Emphasis supplied)On November 28, 1986, the Monetary Board adopted Resolution No. 1079 amending the Central Bank’s Manual of Regulations for Banks and other Financial Intermediaries, in line with the government’s commitment to the World Bank to require a private external auditor for DBP. Thus, on December 5, 1986, the Central Bank Governor issued Central Bank Circular No. 1124, providing that:
“SECTION 1. Subsection 1165.5 (Book I) is amended to read as follows:On December 12, 1986, pursuant to Central Bank Circular No. 1124 and the government’s commitment to the World Bank, DBP Chairman Jesus Estanislao wrote the COA seeking approval of the DBP’s engagement of a private external auditor in addition to the COA.[7]1165.5 Financial Audit. - Each Bank, whether Government-owned or controlled or private, shall cause an annual financial audit to be conducted by an external independent auditor not later than thirty (30) days after the close of the calendar year or the fiscal year adopted by the bank. x x x.x x x
x x x The Audit of a Government-owned or controlled bank by an external independent auditor shall be in addition to and without prejudice to that conducted by the Commission on Audit in the discharge of its mandate under existing law. x x x.
“SECTION 3. The requirement for an annual financial audit by an external independent auditor shall extend to specialized and unique government banks such as the Land Bank of the Philippines and the Development Bank of the Philippines.”[6]
“13. With respect to the draft Policy Statement, it was agreed that Sections 4, 7 and 11 would be amended as follows:On January 20, 1987, then COA Chairman Teofisto Guingona, Jr. replied to the December 12, 1986 letter of the DBP Chairman. The COA Chairman’s reply stated that:x x x (iii) Section 11 should in line with the letter of Development Policy, confirm that the external independent audits would commence with a balance sheet audit as of December 31, 1986 and a full financial audit, including income statements, starting with the period July 1 to December 31, 1986. A copy of COA’s letter (referred to in par. 1, a draft of which is attached as Annex VIII) regarding DBP’s appointment of a private external auditor will be sent to the Bank before the distribution of the loan documents to the Bank’s Board, along with a copy of the scope of audit as approved by COA and satisfactory to the Bank.
With regard to the scope of the audit to be undertaken by the private external auditors, the terms of reference which will be issued to the selected auditors should be generally consistent with the attached model terms of reference for financial audits (Annex IX). These general terms of reference were discussed during negotiations and form a part of the World Bank’s guidelines for financial information on financial institutions.”[9]
“x x x the Commission on Audit (COA) will interpose no objection to your engagement of a private external auditor as required by the Economic Recovery Program Loan Agreements of 1987 provided that the terms for said audit are first reviewed and approved by the Commission.”[10]The following day, the COA Chairman also informed the Consultant of the Central Bank that the COA interposed no objection to the proposed scope of audit services to be undertaken by the private external auditors to be engaged by the DBP. [11]
“74. Accounting and Auditing. All banks both government and private are now subject to accounting and auditing standards as established by the Central Bank. To ensure full public accountability, the Monetary Board now requires that all government banks be subject to annual audits by independent private auditing firms, in addition to those normally undertaken by the Government’s Commission on Audit. DBP and PNB have already selected private auditors, and audited accounts for 1986 and 1987 will be a requirement for the releases of the second and third tranches, respectively, of the ERL.”[13]However, a change in the leadership of the COA suddenly reversed the course of events. On April 27, 1987, the new COA Chairman, Eufemio Domingo, wrote the Central Bank Governor protesting the Central Bank’s issuance of Circular No. 1124 which allegedly encroached upon the COA’s constitutional and statutory power to audit government agencies. The COA Chairman’s letter informed the Governor that:
“This Commission hereby registers its strong objection to that portion of the CBP Circular No. 1124 which requires government banks to engage private auditors in addition to that conducted by the Commission on Audit, and urges the immediate amendment thereof. It is the position of this Commission that the said requirement: (a) infringes on Article IX-D of the Philippine Constitution; (b) violates Section 26 and 32 of the Government Auditing Code of the Philippines; (c) exposes the financial programs and strategies of the Philippine Government to high security risks; (d) allows the unnecessary and unconscionable expenditure of government funds; and (e) encourages unethical encroachment among professionals.”[14]On May 13, 1987, after learning that the DBP had signed a contract with a private auditing firm for calendar year 1986, the new COA Chairman wrote the DBP Chairman that the COA resident auditors were under instructions to disallow any payment to the private auditor whose services were unconstitutional, illegal and unnecessary.[15]
“SVP Fajardo who approved the voucher for payment; VP Santiago who certified that the expenditure was authorized, necessary and lawful; SM Terrel, Catuncan and Rebueno who signed the checks; and the head of office who signed the contract and who is immediately and primarily responsible for the funds of the Bank.”[18]On January 19, 1988, the DBP Chairman wrote the COA Chairman seeking reconsideration of the COA Chairman’s Memorandum.[19] However, the DBP received no response until August 29, 1988 when the COA Chairman issued a letter-decision denying petitioner’s July 1, 1987 note-request for concurrence. The letter-decision, one of the two COA decisions assailed in this petition, declared in part as follows:
“(a) In the letter to the Central Bank Governor x x x, this Commission clearly stated its non-negotiable stand on the issue in the following terms:On September 26, 1988, the DBP Chairman appealed the letter-decision to the COA en banc. On May 20, 1989, the COA en banc, in a letter-decision, denied the DBP’s appeal. This letter-decision, now also assailed by the DBP, held that:‘ x x x the very essence of the Commission on Audit as an independent constitutional commission in the total scheme of Government, is its singular function to ‘[E]xamine, audit, and settle x x x all accounts pertaining to x x x the Government, or any of its subdivisions, x x x including government-owned or controlled corporations.’ To allow private firms to interfere in this governmental audit domain would be to derogate the Constitutional supremacy of State audit as the Government’s guardian of the people’s treasury, and as the prime advocate of economy in the use of government resources.’“(c) In the letter to the Secretary of Finance dated January 28, 1988 x x x, this Commission maintains:
x x x“In view of all the foregoing, you are hereby advised:
- ‘COA is in no way prepared to permit ‘use of private auditors’ except insofar as the law allows, which is ‘to deputize and retain in the name of the Commission such certified public accountants and other licensed professionals not in the public service as it may deem necessary to assist government auditors in undertaking specialized audit engagements’ (Sec. 31, PD No 1445). Outside of this, the Commission does not consider the matter of hiring private auditing firms a negotiable matter, and this we want to emphasize to avoid future embarrassment to the Government. The Commission on Audit is a constitutionally-created independent and separate body, and neither Congress nor the Executive Department has the power to detract from its mandated duties, functions, and powers.
- ‘Since the proceeds of the proposed loan accrue to the Republic of the Philippines as borrower, it follows that its accounting and audit must comply with the laws of this country. To specify in the Loan Agreement that the loan account, once released to the Government, shall be ‘audited by independent auditors acceptable to the Bank’ is not only to entirely by-pass this Commission but to ignore as well the Constitution and the laws of this country which vests in this Commission the ‘power, authority, and duty to examine, audit, and settle all accounts pertaining to the revenue and receipts of, and expenditures or uses of funds and property x x x pertaining to the Government.’ (Sec. 2, Art. IX-D, Phil. Const.).
‘Such brazen disregard of the fundamental law of this country cannot be countenanced by this Commission.’
“1. To desist from proceeding with the audit of Joaquin Cunanan & Co. of the Bank’s financial statements for the year ending December 31, 1987.
“2. To refrain from making any payments out of the funds of the Development Bank of the Philippines, in the event that such audit services have already been rendered, attention being invited to the following provisions of the Government Auditing Code of the Philippines:‘Sec. 108. General liability for unlawful expenditures – Expenditures of government funds or uses of government property in violation of law or regulations shall be a personal liability of the official or employee found to be directly responsible therefore.’“3. To restitute, within thirty (30) days from receipt hereof, the total amount of P513,549.24 under CV Nos. 9136, 5014, 6201 and 4082 for professional services rendered in the audit of the 1986 financial operations of the Bank. Pursuant to the aforequoted provisions of law, such unlawful expenditure is the personal liability of the official directly responsible therefore.
“Please be guided accordingly.”[20]
“Upon a circumspect evaluation of the grounds upon which your instant request is predicated, this Commission finds the same to be devoid of merit. As hereunder demonstrated, the justifications offered do not inspire rational belief in the mind of this Commission.Hence, on June 14, 1989 the DBP filed this petition for review with prayer for a temporary restraining order, assailing the two COA letter-decisions for being contrary to the Constitution and existing laws. On June 15, 1989 this Court issued a temporary restraining order directing the COA to cease and desist from enforcing its challenged letter-decisions. The Office of the Solicitor General, in a Manifestation dated October 18, 1989, declined to appear on behalf of the COA on the ground that the Solicitor General was “taking a position adverse to that of the COA.” Consequently, a private counsel on pro bono basis represented the COA.
“First, it bears stress that CB Circular No. 1124, series of 1986, which has earlier been shown to be constitutionally and legally infirm, cannot by any means possess any binding and conclusive effect upon this Commission and, hence, may not be properly invoked in support of the instant appeal.
“Secondly, it was not the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development which required the audit of government banks by private auditing firm, but the Central Bank itself.
“Thirdly, insofar as this Commission is concerned, PD 2029 is an anachronism of sorts if viewed in the light of the present Constitution recognizing this Commission as the supreme and exclusive audit institution of the government. This is necessarily implicit from the bare language of Section 2(1), Article IX-D thereof which, despite the absence of the qualifying adjective “exclusive” that anyway would be a surplusage, ought to be reasonably construed as vesting in this Commission the “power, authority, and duty” to audit all government accounts to the exclusion of any other person or entity, whether in the public or the private sector. Expressio unius est exclusio alterius. A contrary interpretation, such as that being pressed upon this Commission, would reduce this constitutional ordinance to an absurdity (reductio ad absurdum) as it thereby would give rise to the rather confusing spectacle, as it were, of a government agency or corporation being audited not only by this Commission but also and in addition thereto by one or two or several private accounting firms – certainly a situation never intended by the framers of the Constitution.
“Lastly, while this Commission has not lost sight of the letter of then COA Chairman Guingona, Jr. to the DBP Chairman, dated January 20, 1987, it has opted to be guided and influenced by the more persuasive and controlling COA Circular No. 860254 dated March 24, 1986, which in categorical and precise terms ordained that:‘Accordingly, by way of reassertion and reaffirmation of its primary audit jurisdiction, as herein above defined, the Commission on Audit hereby issues the following directives:“Premises considered, it is regretted that your instant request for reconsideration has to be, as it is hereby, denied.”[21]
- Any ongoing audit of a government-owned and/or controlled corporation or any of its subsidiaries or corporate offsprings being conducted by a private auditor or accounting firm shall cease and terminate on April 15, 1986. Henceforth, from and after said date, the audit of said corporate entity shall be undertaken solely and exclusively by the Commission on Audit. x x x.’
- Does the Constitution vest in the COA the sole and exclusive power to examine and audit government banks so as to prohibit concurrent audit by private external auditors under any circumstance?
- Is there an existing statute that prohibits government banks from hiring private auditors in addition to the COA? If there is none, is there an existing statute that authorizes government banks to hire private auditors in addition to the COA?
- If there is no legal impediment to the hiring by government banks of a private auditor, was the hiring by the DBP of a private auditor in the case at bar necessary, and were the fees paid by DBP to the private auditor reasonable, under the circumstances?
“Sec. 2. (1) The Commission on Audit shall have the power, authority, and duty to examine, audit, and settle all accounts pertaining to the revenue and receipts of, and expenditures or uses of funds and property, owned and held in trust by, or pertaining to, the Government, or any of its subdivisions, agencies, or instrumentalities, including government-owned or controlled corporations with original charters, x x x.The COA vigorously asserts that under the first paragraph of Section 2, the COA enjoys the sole and exclusive power to examine and audit all government agencies, including the DBP. The COA contends this is similar to its sole and exclusive authority, under the second paragraph of the same Section, to define the scope of its audit, promulgate auditing rules and regulations, including rules on the disallowance of unnecessary expenditures of government agencies. The bare language of Section 2, however, shows that the COA’s power under the first paragraph is not declared exclusive, while its authority under the second paragraph is expressly declared “exclusive.” There is a significant reason for this marked difference in language.
“(2) The Commission shall have the exclusive authority, subject to the limitations in this Article, to define the scope of its audit and examination, establish the techniques and methods required therefore, and promulgate accounting and auditing rules and regulations, including those for the prevention and disallowance of irregular, unnecessary, excessive, extravagant, or unconscionable expenditures, or uses of government funds and properties.” (Emphasis supplied)
“MR. MONSOD. Earlier Commissioner Guingona, in withdrawing his amendment to add “EXCLUSIVE” made a statement about the preponderant right of COA.Shortly thereafter, Commissioner Guingona attempted to resurrect his amendment by proposing the following provision:
“For the record, we would like to clarify the reason for not including the word. First, we do not want an Article that would constitute a disincentive or an obstacle to private investment. There are government institutions with private investments in them, and some of these investors - Filipinos, as well as in some cases, foreigners - require the presence of private auditing firms, not exclusively, but concurrently. So this does not take away the power of the Commission on Audit. Second, there are certain instances where private auditing may be required, like the listing in the stock exchange. In other words, we do not want this provision to be an unnecessary obstacle to privatization of these companies or attraction of investments.”[22] (Emphasis supplied)
“Private auditing firms may not examine or audit accounts pertaining to the revenue and receipts of, and expenditures or uses of funds and property owned or held in trust by or pertaining to the Government or any of its subdivisions, agencies or instrumentalities.”[23]Guingona argued that a private audit in addition to the COA audit would be a useless duplication and an unnecessary expense on the part of government.
“MR. MONSOD. x x x But it is also a fact that even government agencies, instrumentalities and subdivisions sometimes borrow money from abroad. And if we are at all going to preclude the possibility of any concurrent auditing, if that is required, and insist that it is only exclusively the government which can audit, we may be unnecessarily tying their hands without really accomplishing much more than what we want. As long as the COA is there, and the COA’s power cannot be eliminated by law, by decree or anything of that sort, then the government funds are protected.The rejection of Guingona’s second proposal put an end to all efforts to grant the COA the sole and exclusive power to examine and audit government agencies.
As far as the question of fees is concerned, this is always negotiable. Besides, if one talks about auditing fees, these are governed by certain regulations within the auditing profession, beyond which auditing firms cannot go. Furthermore, the government can always refuse to pay unconscionable fees. So, that matter really is not that relevant. But I think what we want to insist on is that there should be some flexibility so that a procedural requirement does not impede a substantive transaction as long as COA is there.”[24] (Emphasis supplied)
“MR. GUINGONA. Madam President, after consultation with the honorable members of the Committee, I have amended my proposed amendment by deleting the word EXCLUSIVE because I was made to understand that the Commission on Audit will still have the preponderant power and authority to examine, audit and settle.”[27] (Emphasis supplied)The findings and conclusions of the private auditor may guide private investors or creditors who require such private audit. Government agencies and officials, however, remain bound by the findings and conclusions of the COA, whether the matter falls under the first or second paragraph of Section 2, unless of course such findings and conclusions are modified or reversed by the courts.
“Sec. 3. No law shall be passed exempting any entity of the Government or its subsidiary in any guise whatsoever, or any investment of public funds, from the jurisdiction of the Commission on Audit.”The mere fact that private auditors may audit government agencies does not divest the COA of its power to examine and audit the same government agencies. The COA is neither by-passed nor ignored since even with a private audit the COA will still conduct its usual examination and audit, and its findings and conclusions will still bind government agencies and their officials. A concurrent private audit poses no danger whatsoever of public funds or assets escaping the usual scrutiny of a COA audit.
“Sec. 20. The Congress shall establish an independent central monetary authority, the members of whose governing board must be natural-born Filipino citizens, of known probity, integrity, and patriotism, the majority of whom shall come from the private sector. They shall also be subject to such other qualifications and disabilities as may be prescribed by law. The authority shall provide policy direction in the areas of money, banking, and credit. It shall have supervision over the operations of banks and exercise such regulatory powers as may be provided by law over the operations of finance companies and other institutions performing similar functions.” (Emphasis supplied)Historically, the Central Bank has been conducting periodic and special examination and audit of banks to determine the soundness of their operations and the safety of the deposits of the public. Undeniably, the Central Bank’s power of “supervision” includes the power to examine and audit banks, as the banking laws have always recognized this power of the Central Bank.[31] Hence, the COA’s power to examine and audit government banks must be reconciled with the Central Bank’s power to supervise the same banks. The inevitable conclusion is that the COA and the Central Bank have concurrent jurisdiction, under the Constitution, to examine and audit government banks.
“Section 26. General Jurisdiction. The authority and powers of the Commission shall extend to and comprehend all matters relating to auditing procedures, systems and controls, the keeping of the general accounts of the Government, the preservation of vouchers pertaining thereto for a period of ten years, the examination and inspection of the books, records, and papers relating to those accounts; and the audit and settlement of the accounts of all persons respecting funds or property received or held by them in an accountable capacity, as well as the examination, audit, and settlement of all debts and claims of any sort due or owing to the Government or any of its subdivisions, agencies or instrumentalities. The said jurisdiction extends to all government-owned or controlled corporations, including their subsidiaries, and other self-governing boards, commissions, or agencies of the Government, and as herein prescribed, including non-governmental entities subsidized by the government, those funded by donations through the government, those required to pay levies or government share, and those for which the government has put up a counterpart fund or those partly funded by the government.”Section 26 defines the extent and scope of the powers of the COA. Considering the comprehensive definition in Section 26, the COA’s jurisdiction covers all government agencies, offices, bureaus and units, including government-owned or controlled corporations, and even non-government entities enjoying subsidy from the government. However, there is nothing in Section 26 that states, expressly or impliedly, that the COA’s power to examine and audit government banks is exclusive, thereby preventing private audit of government agencies concurrently with the COA audit.
“Section 58. Independent Auditor. - The Monetary Board may require a bank, quasi-bank or trust entity to engage the services of an independent auditor to be chosen by the bank, quasi-bank or trust entity concerned from a list of certified public accountants acceptable to the Monetary Board. The term of the engagement shall be as prescribed by the Monetary Board which may either be on a continuing basis where the auditor shall act as resident examiner, or on the basis of special engagements; but in any case, the independent auditor shall be responsible to the bank’s, quasi-bank’s or trust entity’s board of directors. A copy of the report shall be furnished to the Monetary Board. x x x.” (Emphasis supplied)Moreover, Section 26 must also be applied in conformity with Sections 25 and 28[33] of the New Central Bank Act (RA No. 7653) which authorize expressly the Monetary Board to conduct periodic or special examination of all banks. Sections 25 and 28 of the New Central Bank Act state as follows:
“Sec. 25. Supervision and Examination. The Bangko Sentral shall have supervision over, and conduct periodic or special examinations of, banking institutions x x x. (Emphasis supplied)The power vested in the Monetary Board under Section 58 of the General Banking Law of 2000, and Sections 25 and 28 of the New Central Bank Act, emanates from the Central Bank’s explicit constitutional mandate to exercise “supervision over the operations of banks.” Under Section 4 of the General Banking Law of 2000, the term “supervision”[34] is defined as follows:
x x x
“Sec. 28. Examination and Fees. The supervising and examining department head, personally or by deputy, shall examine the books of every banking institution once in every twelve (12) months, and at such other time as the Monetary Board by an affirmative vote of five (5) members may deem expedient and to make a report on the same to the Monetary Board: x x x.” (Emphasis supplied)
“Section 4. Supervisory Powers. The operations and activities of banks shall be subject to supervision of the Bangko Sentral. “Supervision” shall include the following:Clearly, under existing laws, the COA does not have the sole and exclusive power to examine and audit government banks. The Central Bank has concurrent jurisdiction to examine and audit, or cause the examination and audit, of government banks.x x x
4.2. The conduct of examination to determine compliance with laws and regulations if the circumstances so warrant as determined by the Monetary Board;
x x x
4.4. Regular investigation which shall not be oftener than once a year from the last date of examination to determine whether an institution is conducting its business on a safe or sound basis: Provided, That the deficiencies/irregularities found by or discovered by an audit shall immediately be addressed;
x x x.” (Emphasis supplied)
“Section 31. Deputization of private licensed professionals to assist government auditors. - (1) The Commission may, when the exigencies of the service so require, deputize and retain in the name of the Commission such certified public accountants and other licensed professionals not in the public service as it may deem necessary to assist government auditors in undertaking specialized audit engagements.According to the COA, Section 31 is the maximum extent that private auditors can participate in auditing government agencies and anything beyond this is without legal basis. Hence, the COA maintains that the hiring of private auditors who act in their own name and operate independently of the COA is unlawful.
“(2) The deputized professionals shall be entitled to such compensation and allowances as may be stipulated, subject to pertinent rules and regulations on compensation and fees.”
“Section 32. Government contracts for auditing, accounting, and related services. (1) No government agency shall enter into any contract with any private person or firm for services to undertake studies and services relating to government auditing, including services to conduct, for a fee, seminars or workshops for government personnel on these topics, unless the proposed contract is first submitted to the Commission to enable it to determine if it has the resources to undertake such studies or services. The Commission may engage the services of experts from the public or private sector in the conduct of these studies.Section 32 refers to contracts for studies and services “relating to government auditing” which the COA may or may not want to undertake itself for a government agency. Stated another way, Section 32 speaks of studies and services that the COA may choose not to render to a government agency. Obviously, the subject of these contracts is not the audit itself of a government agency because the COA is compelled to undertake such audit and cannot choose not to conduct such audit. The Constitution and existing law mandate the COA to audit all government agencies. Section 2, Article IX-D of the Constitution commands that the COA “shall have the x x x duty to examine, audit, and settle all accounts” of government agencies (Emphasis supplied). Similarly, the Revised Administrative Code of 1987 directs that the “Commission on Audit shall have the x x x duty to examine, audit, and settle all accounts”[35] of government agencies (Emphasis supplied). Hence, the COA cannot refuse to audit government agencies under any circumstance.
“(2) Should the Commission decide not to undertake the study or service, it shall nonetheless have the power to review the contract in order to determine the reasonableness of its costs.” (Emphasis supplied)
“SEC. 14. The Batasang Pambansa shall establish a central monetary authority which shall provide policy direction in the areas of money, banking and credit. It shall have supervisory authority over the operations of banks and exercise such regulatory authority as may be provided by law over the operations of finance companies and other institutions performing similar functions. Until the Batasang Pambansa shall otherwise provide, the Central Bank of the Philippines, operating under existing laws, shall function as the central monetary authority.” (Emphasis supplied)Section 6-D of the General Banking Act (RA No. 337) vested the Monetary Board with the specific power to “require a bank to engage the services of an independent auditor to be chosen by the bank concerned from a list of certified public accountants acceptable to the Monetary Board.”
“The audit of government corporations by the Commission on Audit shall not preclude government corporations from engaging the services of private auditing firms: Provided, however, that even if the services of the latter are availed of, the audit report of the Commission on Audit shall serve as the report for purposes of compliance with audit requirements as required of government corporations under applicable law.”Section 8 of PD No. 2029, however, also provides that the “policy of withdrawal of resident auditors shall be fully implemented x x x.” Section 2 of the same decree also excludes from the term “government-owned or controlled corporation” two classes of corporations. The first are originally private corporations the majority of the shares of stock of which are acquired by government financial institutions through foreclosure or dacion en pago. The second are subsidiary corporations of government corporations, which subsidiaries are organized exclusively to own, manage or lease physical assets acquired by government financial institutions through foreclosure or dacion en pago. Claiming that PD No. 2029 operates to exempt certain government-owned corporations from the COA’s jurisdiction in violation of Section 3, Article IX-D of the Constitution, the COA is questioning the constitutionality of PD No. 2029.
“Section 2. The Auditor General shall examine, audit, and settle all accounts pertaining to the receipts and revenues from whatever source, including trust funds derived from bond issues, and audit, in accordance with law and administrative regulations, all expenditures of funds or property pertaining to or held in trust by the Government or the provinces or municipalities thereof. x x x.”Section 2, Article XII-D of the 1973 Constitution provided as follows:
“Sec. 2. The Commission shall have the following powers and functions: (1) Examine, audit, and settle, in accordance with law and regulations, all accounts pertaining to the revenues, and receipts of, and expenditures or uses of funds and property, owned or held in trust by, or pertaining to, the Government, or any of its subdivisions, agencies, or instrumentalities including government-owned or controlled corporations; xxx.”[26] Felipe vs. De la Cruz, 99 Phil. 940 (1956); Tirona vs. Cudiamat, 14 SCRA 264 (1965).